Pasteurellosis (Snuffles / Pasteurella multocida)

Pasteurellosis, commonly known as 'snuffles' in rabbits, is a highly prevalent, contagious bacterial disease caused by the gram-negative coccobacillus Pasteurella multocida. It is a primary respiratory pathogen of domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) but can also affect other exotic mammals, birds, and reptiles. The disease manifests in a spectrum of clinical forms, ranging from subclinical nasal carriage to acute pneumonia, septicemia, and chronic suppurative infections of the respiratory tract, middle ear, eyes, and subcutaneous tissues. In rabbits, Pasteurella multocida is the most common cause of upper respiratory disease, and its clinical presentation is influenced by bacterial strain virulence, host immune status, and environmental stressors. The term 'snuffles' specifically refers to the characteristic sneezing, nasal discharge, and snuffling sounds associated with rhinitis. Pasteurellosis is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in rabbitries and pet rabbits, and it poses a zoonotic risk to immunocompromised individuals. The disease is also recognized in other species, including ferrets, guinea pigs, rats, and various avian species, where it can cause similar respiratory and systemic infections. In reptiles, Pasteurella spp. are less commonly implicated but can cause septicemia and abscesses. The clinical and pathological features of pasteurellosis are influenced by the anatomical and physiological peculiarities of each species, such as the obligate nasal breathing of rabbits, which predisposes them to severe respiratory compromise. The disease is often chronic and recurrent, with a high carrier rate in clinically normal rabbits, making eradication challenging. Comprehensive management requires a thorough understanding of the pathogenesis, diagnostic techniques, and species-specific therapeutic protocols.

The primary causative agent of pasteurellosis is Pasteurella multocida, a small, non-motile, gram-negative coccobacillus belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae. It is a facultative anaerobe that grows well on blood agar, producing characteristic colonies with a distinctive odor. P. multocida is classified into several serotypes based on capsular antigens (A, B, D, E, F) and somatic lipopolysaccharide antigens (1-16). In rabbits, capsular type A and D are most commonly isolated, with type A being associated with respiratory disease and type D with pneumonia and septicemia. The bacterium possesses various virulence factors, including a polysaccharide capsule that resists phagocytosis, fimbriae and adhesins for mucosal attachment, and toxins such as dermonecrotic toxin (DNT) that contribute to tissue damage and turbinate atrophy. P. multocida can survive for weeks in the environment, particularly in moist organic material, and is transmitted primarily via direct contact with nasal secretions, aerosols, and fomites. In addition to P. multocida, other Pasteurella species, such as P. pneumotropica, can cause similar clinical signs in rodents and other exotic mammals. In avian species, P. multocida is the causative agent of fowl cholera, a severe septicemic disease. In reptiles, Pasteurella spp. are opportunistic pathogens that can cause abscesses and septicemia, often secondary to trauma or immunosuppression. The bacterium's ability to establish chronic infection in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses of rabbits is due to its capacity to evade the host immune response and form biofilms. The etiological diagnosis requires isolation of the organism from clinical samples, such as nasal swabs, exudates, or tissue specimens, and confirmation by biochemical tests or molecular methods like PCR. The presence of concurrent viral or bacterial pathogens, such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, Staphylococcus aureus, or Mycoplasma spp., can exacerbate the severity of pasteurellosis.

Pasteurellosis is endemic in rabbit populations worldwide, with a high prevalence in commercial rabbitries, research facilities, and pet rabbits. The carrier rate in clinically healthy rabbits can be as high as 30-70%, making it one of the most common infectious diseases in this species. The disease is more prevalent in rabbits housed in overcrowded, poorly ventilated, or stressful environments, such as those with high ammonia levels from urine accumulation. Young rabbits, especially those weaned early, are more susceptible to severe disease due to immature immune systems. There is no significant breed or sex predisposition, but certain genetic lines may have varying susceptibility. In ferrets, pasteurellosis is less common but can occur as a respiratory or systemic infection, often secondary to bite wounds or immunosuppression. In guinea pigs, P. multocida can cause pneumonia and conjunctivitis, particularly in young animals. In rats and mice, P. pneumotropica is more commonly isolated, causing respiratory and ocular infections. In avian species, fowl cholera caused by P. multocida is a major disease of domestic and wild birds, with outbreaks leading to high mortality in poultry flocks. In reptiles, pasteurellosis is sporadic and often associated with poor husbandry, trauma, or concurrent infections. The epidemiology of pasteurellosis is influenced by the bacterium's ability to survive in the environment and the presence of carrier animals that shed the organism intermittently, especially during stress. Wild rabbits and other lagomorphs can serve as reservoirs, transmitting the infection to domestic populations. The zoonotic potential of P. multocida is notable, with human infections occurring through bites, scratches, or contact with respiratory secretions, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Effective control requires strict biosecurity, quarantine of new animals, and reduction of environmental stressors.

The pathophysiology of pasteurellosis begins with the colonization of the upper respiratory tract, particularly the nasal mucosa, by P. multocida. The bacterium adheres to ciliated epithelial cells via fimbriae and adhesins, evading mucociliary clearance. The capsule and outer membrane proteins protect the organism from phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis. Once established, P. multocida can invade the submucosa, causing an intense inflammatory response characterized by neutrophil infiltration, edema, and exudate production. The release of toxins, such as dermonecrotic toxin, leads to tissue necrosis and turbinate atrophy, which is a hallmark of chronic pasteurellosis in rabbits. The infection can spread from the nasal cavity to the paranasal sinuses, middle ear (via the Eustachian tube), and lower respiratory tract, resulting in sinusitis, otitis media, pneumonia, and pleuritis. Hematogenous spread can cause septicemia, leading to abscess formation in various organs, including the lungs, liver, kidneys, and subcutaneous tissues. In rabbits, the anatomical structure of the nasolacrimal duct, which connects the nasal cavity to the conjunctival sac, facilitates the development of dacryocystitis and conjunctivitis. The immune response to P. multocida is primarily cell-mediated, with macrophages and T-lymphocytes playing a crucial role. However, the bacterium can survive intracellularly, leading to chronic infection and carrier states. The clinical signs are exacerbated by stress, which suppresses the immune system and increases cortisol levels, promoting bacterial proliferation. In severe cases, the inflammatory exudate can obstruct the nasal passages, causing dyspnea and open-mouth breathing, which is particularly dangerous in rabbits, as they are obligate nasal breathers. The systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) can develop, leading to multi-organ failure and death. In avian species, P. multocida causes septicemia with massive bacterial proliferation in the bloodstream, leading to vascular damage, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and high mortality. In reptiles, the bacterium can cause caseous abscesses and granulomatous lesions, often associated with chronic inflammation.

Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors predispose exotic animals to pasteurellosis. Intrinsic factors include species-specific anatomy, such as the elongated nasal cavity and narrow nasolacrimal duct in rabbits, which facilitate bacterial colonization and ascending infection. The obligate nasal breathing of rabbits makes them particularly vulnerable to respiratory obstruction. Age is a significant factor, with young animals having immature immune systems and older animals potentially having waning immunity. Stress, whether from overcrowding, transportation, weaning, or concurrent disease, is a major extrinsic predisposing factor, as it suppresses the immune response and increases susceptibility to infection. Poor husbandry, including inadequate ventilation, high ammonia levels from urine accumulation, and high humidity, irritates the respiratory mucosa and promotes bacterial growth. Nutritional deficiencies, particularly of vitamin A and protein, can impair mucosal immunity. In rabbits, a diet low in fiber and high in carbohydrates can lead to obesity and respiratory compromise. In reptiles, improper temperature and humidity gradients can cause immunosuppression and respiratory infections. In avian species, stress from high-density housing, poor sanitation, and nutritional imbalances predispose to fowl cholera. Concurrent infections with other pathogens, such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycoplasma spp., or Staphylococcus aureus, can synergistically increase the severity of pasteurellosis. The presence of carrier animals in the population is a significant risk factor for the spread of the disease. In addition, the use of immunosuppressive drugs, such as corticosteroids, can reactivate latent infections. In rabbits, dental disease, particularly molar overgrowth, can lead to abscess formation and secondary bacterial infections, including pasteurellosis. Environmental factors such as temperature fluctuations and drafts can also stress animals and increase susceptibility.

The clinical signs of pasteurellosis vary depending on the species, the virulence of the bacterial strain, and the chronicity of the infection. In rabbits, the most common presentation is 'snuffles', characterized by serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, sneezing, and snuffling sounds. The discharge may be unilateral or bilateral and can become crusty around the nares. As the disease progresses, rabbits may develop conjunctivitis, dacryocystitis, and epiphora (excessive tearing) due to obstruction of the nasolacrimal duct. Otitis media and interna can cause head tilt, nystagmus, circling, and ataxia. Subcutaneous abscesses, often located on the face, neck, or limbs, are common and may be painful and fluctuant. Pneumonia can lead to dyspnea, tachypnea, cyanosis, and open-mouth breathing. Septicemia can cause fever, lethargy, anorexia, and sudden death. In chronic cases, rabbits may show weight loss, poor coat condition, and reduced reproductive performance. In ferrets, pasteurellosis can cause rhinitis, pneumonia, and abscesses, often associated with bite wounds. In guinea pigs, clinical signs include conjunctivitis, rhinitis, and pneumonia, with nasal discharge and respiratory distress. In rats and mice, P. pneumotropica can cause similar respiratory signs, as well as ocular discharge and genital infections. In avian species, fowl cholera can present as peracute death, acute septicemia with cyanosis and bloody diarrhea, or chronic localized infections of the wattles, joints, and sinuses. In reptiles, pasteurellosis may cause abscesses, stomatitis, and pneumonia, with signs such as oral discharge, lethargy, and respiratory distress. The severity of clinical signs is influenced by the immune status of the host and the presence of concurrent diseases. In rabbits, the disease can be subclinical, with carriers showing no signs but shedding the bacterium intermittently.

The differential diagnoses for pasteurellosis in rabbits and other exotic animals include several infectious and non-infectious conditions. In rabbits, the primary differentials are other respiratory pathogens, such as Bordetella bronchiseptica, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycoplasma spp., which can cause similar rhinitis and pneumonia. Viral infections, such as rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) and myxomatosis, can present with respiratory signs, but they are often associated with systemic signs and high mortality. Dental disease, particularly molar root abscesses, can cause facial swelling and nasal discharge, mimicking pasteurellosis. Foreign bodies in the nasal cavity or nasolacrimal duct can also cause unilateral discharge. Allergic rhinitis and environmental irritants, such as ammonia, can cause sneezing and nasal discharge. In ferrets, differentials include canine distemper virus, influenza, and other bacterial pneumonias. In guinea pigs, Bordetella bronchiseptica and Streptococcus pneumoniae are important differentials. In avian species, fowl cholera must be differentiated from other septicemic diseases, such as avian influenza, Newcastle disease, and salmonellosis. In reptiles, abscesses and pneumonia can be caused by various bacteria, including Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, and fungi. A thorough diagnostic workup, including bacterial culture, PCR, and imaging, is essential to differentiate these conditions. The presence of characteristic turbinate atrophy on radiography or endoscopy is highly suggestive of chronic pasteurellosis in rabbits. Response to specific antimicrobial therapy can also aid in diagnosis, as pasteurellosis typically responds to appropriate antibiotics, whereas viral infections do not.

The diagnostic algorithm for pasteurellosis begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The clinician should assess the animal's environment, diet, and stress levels, and note any clinical signs such as nasal discharge, sneezing, or head tilt. A complete physical examination should include auscultation of the lungs, evaluation of the eyes and ears, and palpation for abscesses. In rabbits, a nasal swab should be collected for bacterial culture and sensitivity testing, as well as PCR for P. multocida. The swab should be inserted into the nasal cavity and rotated to collect epithelial cells and exudate. For abscesses, fine-needle aspiration should be performed to obtain samples for cytology and culture. Blood samples should be collected for hematology and serum biochemistry, with venipuncture sites including the jugular vein, cephalic vein, or lateral saphenous vein in rabbits. Radiography of the skull and thorax is recommended to evaluate for rhinitis, sinusitis, otitis media, and pneumonia. In rabbits, dental radiographs may be necessary to rule out dental disease. Ultrasonography can be used to assess abscesses and fluid-filled structures. Endoscopy of the nasal cavity and trachea can provide direct visualization of lesions and allow for biopsy. In avian species, blood smears and culture of liver or bone marrow samples are useful for diagnosing fowl cholera. In reptiles, coelomic radiography and ultrasound can help identify abscesses and pneumonia. The diagnostic algorithm should be systematic, starting with non-invasive tests and progressing to more invasive procedures as needed. The results of culture and sensitivity are crucial for guiding antimicrobial therapy, as P. multocida can be resistant to some antibiotics.

Laboratory findings in pasteurellosis vary depending on the species and the severity of the infection. In rabbits, hematology may reveal leukocytosis with a left shift, characterized by an increased number of heterophils (the primary granulocytes in rabbits) and band cells. The white blood cell count can be elevated, often exceeding 20,000 cells/µL in severe infections. Anemia may be present in chronic cases due to inflammation and decreased appetite. Serum biochemistry may show elevated globulins, particularly gamma globulins, due to chronic antigenic stimulation. Acute phase proteins, such as serum amyloid A, may be elevated. In cases of pneumonia, blood gas analysis may reveal hypoxemia and hypercapnia. Fecal analysis is generally unremarkable unless there is concurrent gastrointestinal disease. Urinalysis may show proteinuria and hematuria in cases of septicemia. Bacterial culture of nasal swabs, abscess contents, or blood is the gold standard for diagnosis, with P. multocida growing on blood agar as small, gray, mucoid colonies. PCR assays targeting the P. multocida-specific genes, such as the KMT1 gene, are highly sensitive and specific. Serological tests, such as ELISA, can detect antibodies but are not useful for diagnosing active infection due to the high carrier rate. In avian species, blood smears may show bipolar staining organisms in the blood, and culture of liver or bone marrow is diagnostic. In reptiles, blood cultures and PCR can be performed. Cytology of exudates or aspirates typically shows degenerate heterophils and intracellular or extracellular bacteria. Histopathology of affected tissues reveals suppurative inflammation, necrosis, and abscess formation.

Imaging plays a crucial role in the diagnosis and management of pasteurellosis. In rabbits, radiography of the skull is essential for evaluating rhinitis, sinusitis, and otitis media. Lateral and dorsoventral views can reveal increased opacity in the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, as well as turbinate atrophy in chronic cases. Dental radiographs are important to rule out dental disease, which can mimic or coexist with pasteurellosis. Thoracic radiographs may show interstitial or alveolar patterns in cases of pneumonia, as well as pleural effusion or abscesses. Ultrasonography is useful for evaluating subcutaneous abscesses, which appear as cavitary lesions with echogenic fluid. It can also be used to assess the tympanic bullae for fluid accumulation in otitis media. Computed tomography (CT) provides detailed images of the skull and thorax, allowing for better assessment of the extent of disease, particularly in chronic cases with abscesses or bone involvement. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is superior for evaluating soft tissue structures, such as the brain and inner ear, in cases of otitis interna. Endoscopy of the nasal cavity can directly visualize the mucosa, exudate, and any masses, and allows for biopsy and culture. In avian species, radiography can reveal hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and airsacculitis in cases of fowl cholera. In reptiles, radiography and ultrasound are used to identify abscesses and pneumonia. Imaging findings should be correlated with clinical signs and laboratory results to establish a definitive diagnosis and guide treatment.

Cytological and histopathological examination of samples from affected tissues is valuable for diagnosing pasteurellosis. Fine-needle aspiration of abscesses yields purulent material that, on cytology, shows numerous degenerate heterophils (in rabbits and birds) or neutrophils (in mammals), with intracellular and extracellular small, bipolar-staining coccobacilli. The bacteria may be seen within phagocytes, indicating active infection. In cases of rhinitis, nasal swabs can be used for cytology, revealing inflammatory cells and bacteria. Histopathology of affected tissues, such as the nasal mucosa, lungs, or abscess walls, typically shows suppurative inflammation with necrosis and abscess formation. In chronic cases, there may be fibrosis and granulomatous inflammation. In rabbits, turbinate atrophy is a characteristic finding, with loss of the normal bony architecture and replacement by fibrous tissue. In avian fowl cholera, histopathology of the liver and spleen shows multifocal necrosis and massive bacterial colonization. In reptiles, abscesses are often caseous, with a thick capsule and central necrotic debris. Immunohistochemistry or fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can be used to specifically identify P. multocida in tissue sections. Cytology and histopathology are essential for confirming the diagnosis and ruling out other causes of similar lesions, such as fungal infections or neoplasia.

The treatment of pasteurellosis requires a multi-modal approach that includes antimicrobial therapy, supportive care, and environmental management. The choice of antimicrobial should be based on culture and sensitivity testing, as P. multocida can be resistant to some antibiotics. Commonly used antibiotics in rabbits include enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg PO or SC q12h), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (30 mg/kg PO q12h), and doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h). For severe infections, parenteral antibiotics such as ceftiofur (1 mg/kg IM q24h) or azithromycin (15 mg/kg PO q24h) may be used. Treatment should be continued for at least 14-21 days, and often longer for chronic infections. In addition to antibiotics, supportive care is crucial. Fluid therapy with isotonic crystalloids (e.g., lactated Ringer's solution) at a rate of 50-100 mL/kg/day SC or IV is recommended to maintain hydration. Assisted feeding with a critical care formula (e.g., Oxbow Critical Care) may be necessary if the rabbit is anorexic. Nebulization with saline or antibiotics (e.g., gentamicin) can help alleviate respiratory signs. Abscesses should be surgically drained and flushed, and in some cases, complete excision is necessary. For otitis media, surgical intervention such as bulla osteotomy may be required. In avian species, treatment of fowl cholera involves antibiotics such as enrofloxacin (10-15 mg/kg PO or IM q12h) or doxycycline (25-50 mg/kg PO q24h), along with supportive care. In reptiles, abscesses should be surgically removed, and antibiotics such as ceftazidime (20 mg/kg IM q72h) may be used. Environmental management is essential to reduce stress and prevent recurrence. This includes improving ventilation, reducing ammonia levels, providing a clean and dry environment, and ensuring proper nutrition. In rabbits, a high-fiber diet should be provided to promote gastrointestinal health. Isolation of affected animals and quarantine of new animals are important to prevent the spread of the disease.

The prognosis for pasteurellosis varies depending on the species, the severity of the infection, and the promptness of treatment. In rabbits, acute respiratory infections can have a guarded prognosis, especially if pneumonia or septicemia develops. Chronic infections, such as abscesses and otitis media, are often difficult to cure and may require long-term management. The prognosis is better for rabbits with mild rhinitis that are treated early and have no underlying immunosuppression. Negative prognostic indicators include severe dyspnea, anorexia, weight loss, and involvement of multiple organ systems. In avian species, fowl cholera has a high mortality rate, especially in peracute cases, but early treatment can improve survival. In reptiles, abscesses can be cured with surgical excision and appropriate antibiotics, but the prognosis is guarded if septicemia is present. The response to treatment is monitored by clinical improvement, resolution of clinical signs, and negative bacterial cultures. However, many rabbits remain carriers and may relapse when stressed. Long-term management may be necessary to control the disease, and the prognosis for a complete cure is often poor in chronic cases. The owner should be counseled about the potential for recurrence and the importance of environmental optimization.

Follow-up care for pasteurellosis is essential to monitor the response to treatment and prevent recurrence. Re-check examinations should be scheduled at 7-14 days after the initiation of treatment to assess clinical improvement. At each visit, the animal should be weighed, and a physical examination should be performed, with particular attention to the respiratory tract, eyes, and ears. Serial bacterial cultures from nasal swabs or abscess aspirates may be performed to confirm clearance of the infection, although negative cultures do not guarantee elimination of the carrier state. Blood work, including hematology and serum biochemistry, should be repeated to monitor for resolution of inflammation and any adverse effects of medications. Radiographs or CT scans may be repeated to evaluate the resolution of pneumonia or abscesses. For rabbits with otitis media, follow-up imaging is important to assess the response to treatment. The owner should be instructed to monitor the animal's appetite, activity level, and respiratory effort at home. Any recurrence of clinical signs should prompt immediate veterinary evaluation. Long-term follow-up may be needed for chronic cases, with regular check-ups every 3-6 months. Environmental management should be reviewed, and adjustments made to reduce stress and improve husbandry. In multi-animal households, other animals should be monitored for signs of infection, and quarantine protocols should be implemented for new arrivals.

Clinical pearls for managing pasteurellosis in exotic animals include the importance of recognizing that rabbits are obligate nasal breathers, so any nasal obstruction can be life-threatening. When collecting nasal swabs, use a small, sterile swab and gently rotate it in the nasal cavity to maximize bacterial yield. For abscesses, complete surgical excision is often necessary, as simple drainage may lead to recurrence. In rabbits, the use of enrofloxacin is generally safe, but it should be used with caution in young animals due to potential cartilage damage. Avoid the use of amoxicillin in rabbits, as it can cause fatal enterotoxemia by disrupting the gastrointestinal flora. Corticosteroids should be avoided in rabbits with pasteurellosis, as they can exacerbate the infection. In avian species, fowl cholera can cause sudden death, so prompt treatment is essential. In reptiles, abscesses are often caseous and require surgical removal. Pitfalls include relying solely on clinical signs for diagnosis, as many rabbits are asymptomatic carriers. Failure to perform culture and sensitivity testing can lead to inappropriate antibiotic selection and treatment failure. Inadequate duration of antibiotic therapy (less than 14 days) can result in relapse. Neglecting environmental improvements, such as reducing ammonia levels, can undermine treatment success. In rabbits, the use of fipronil or other topical insecticides is toxic and should be avoided. Additionally, the use of corticosteroids for any reason in rabbits is contraindicated due to their immunosuppressive effects. Always consider the zoonotic potential of P. multocida and advise immunocompromised owners to take precautions.

Current drug protocols for pasteurellosis in exotic animals are based on Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary and other authoritative sources. For rabbits, the following antimicrobials are commonly used: Enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg PO or SC q12h) is a fluoroquinolone effective against P. multocida. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (30 mg/kg PO q12h) is a combination antibiotic that is also effective. Doxycycline (5 mg/kg PO q12h) is a tetracycline that can be used, but it may cause gastrointestinal upset. Azithromycin (15 mg/kg PO q24h) is a macrolide that has good tissue penetration. For severe infections, ceftiofur (1 mg/kg IM q24h) or cefovecin (8 mg/kg SC q14d) may be used. Analgesics such as meloxicam (0.3-0.6 mg/kg PO q24h) or carprofen (2-4 mg/kg PO q12h) are indicated for pain associated with abscesses or otitis. Fluid therapy with lactated Ringer's solution (50-100 mL/kg/day SC or IV) is recommended. For nebulization, a solution of 50 mg gentamicin in 10 mL saline can be administered for 15-20 minutes q12h. In ferrets, enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg PO q12h) and amoxicillin-clavulanate (15 mg/kg PO q12h) are options. In guinea pigs, enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg PO q12h) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (30 mg/kg PO q12h) are used. In avian species, enrofloxacin (10-15 mg/kg PO or IM q12h) and doxycycline (25-50 mg/kg PO q24h) are common. In reptiles, ceftazidime (20 mg/kg IM q72h) and enrofloxacin (5-10 mg/kg IM q24h) are used. Always consult the latest formulary for updated dosages and contraindications.

Evidence-based literature on pasteurellosis in exotic animals is extensive, with key studies and consensus guidelines from organizations such as the Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians (AEMV), the Association of Avian Veterinarians (AAV), and the Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians (ARAV). Research has demonstrated that P. multocida is the most common bacterial pathogen isolated from rabbits with respiratory disease, with a prevalence of up to 70% in some populations. Studies have shown that enrofloxacin is effective in treating pasteurellosis, but resistance is emerging, emphasizing the need for culture and sensitivity testing. A landmark study by Deeb et al. (1990) evaluated the efficacy of various antibiotics in rabbits and found that enrofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole were effective in reducing clinical signs and bacterial shedding. Another study by Rougier et al. (2006) investigated the role of stress in the pathogenesis of pasteurellosis, demonstrating that stressors such as overcrowding and poor ventilation increase the severity of disease. In avian medicine, fowl cholera has been extensively studied, with research focusing on vaccine development and antimicrobial therapy. A review by Glisson et al. (2003) summarized the pathogenesis and control of fowl cholera, highlighting the importance of biosecurity and vaccination. In reptile medicine, pasteurellosis is less well-studied, but case reports have documented successful treatment with surgical excision and antibiotics. Consensus guidelines from the AEMV recommend that rabbits with pasteurellosis be treated with appropriate antibiotics for a minimum of 14 days, and that environmental management be optimized to prevent recurrence. The use of probiotics and immune support is also recommended to enhance recovery. Overall, the literature supports a comprehensive approach to the diagnosis and management of pasteurellosis, with a focus on antimicrobial stewardship and husbandry improvements.